Beyond Making MP3's
by Dunc Petrie

First, my disclaimer: "I am neither presently involved nor have I ever been associated with any company, agency or product mentioned in this article (except as a retail, end-user). I have not tested these products in a controlled environment and I make no claim or statement that any product did (or did not) perform as claimed by its manufacturer or agent. I make no claim that any product is either the sole or best for the task at hand. I also make no claim that any product mentioned is safe to use with your equipment."

This article is a bit of everything... or, perhaps, a lot about nothing; I guess that it depends upon your perspective.  Before there was digital, there was analog. Here goes... 

The recent series by Alan German on copying vinyl to CD has been a pursuit of mine for a while. My equipment is old (1960's and 1970's vintage) and transistorized. Commercial repairs would pose a problem since there are few schematic (circuit) diagrams available although some exist for sale on the Internet. In many cases it is impossible to locate exact electrical replacement parts. Some parts were manufactured to the hi-fidelity component makers' specifications; locating an exact replacement today would be impossible (power transformers are an example). At least the parts are discrete and not integrated circuits. While I am not a repair technician (at least not the licensed variety) I have - necessity being the mother of invention - done the odd  bit to get my stuff going again and, no, I am neither soliciting your broken equipment nor offering my services to repair same. Have a look at AudioXpress Magazine (I have found it at Chapters) for equipment restoration projects.

My comments, related to my personal experiences, address the 33.3 rpm stereo LP (12 inch/30 cm. diameter). Anyone who wants to transfer mono LPs should read The LP Is Back (see Some Resources at the end of the article) and The Making of an LP, Ultra High Fidelity (UHF) Magazine, Number 73, September 2005. Although I have not rigorously experimented with single-play 45 rpm media I imagine that most of my comments would apply equally to them (see http://www.enhancedaudio.com/45_restoration.htm). The 78 rpm media is another tale: I frankly have no experience and no 78's to allow me to practice. I suggest The LP Is Back, http://www.enhancedaudio.com/78_restoration.htm or http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Museum/8764/ as a start and Googling "78 rpm records" should keep you occupied. Most of the equipment that I discuss is deficient, for a variety of reasons, for playing this vintage media.

Testing and repairing older equipment can prove both enjoyable and frustrating. The components most likely to fail (or change their value over time) are probably resistors and capacitors. I don't intend to diverge onto the methodologies of isolating the culprits; suffice it to say that if you want to follow in my footsteps then some basic electronic knowledge, a few pieces of test equipment (more later), an ability to interpret color codes on components and the skill to desolder and solder (without cooking the component board) are pre-requisites. Oh, yes, speaking from experience, document your steps: a digital camera "way back when" would have saved me many tears. At least make sketches.

Repairing or replacing other parts can be more problematic as poor availability is paramount. Regrettably, some equipment should be scrap-heap bound from the get-go; learn to recognize this early in the workflow and avoid sentimentality - it wastes vast amounts of time. If you can't repair it yourself then it is almost certainly economically unsound to seek professional help; the non-refundable, up-front diagnostic fee alone (that will likely say, "irreparable, no parts available") will likely be greater than the commercial value. While it may have been a long and faithful friend, if it is non-working and you are personally unable to repair it then it is a boat anchor.

An important caution: you do need some basic information. Do not consider these warnings comprehensive; merely practical examples. I work almost exclusively with transistor/integrated circuit equipment. Those "around long enough" remember vacuum tube equipment (making a come-back in the high-price end) and the lethal, high voltages and electric currents (technically, B-plus for the plate circuits) floating around the chassis. While transistorized circuits generally use lower voltages, the uninitiated can still get a big surprise. Line voltages (120 volts) exist around power transformers and power supply inputs. Due to the high capacitance of many of the filter capacitors (the aluminum cans) this danger remains for some time (in a few cases, days) after removing the power - unplug the cord; never trust a switch. At all times know where your hands and fingers are; better, know where they should not be. Keep your face well away (protective goggles); I (and my elderly eyesight) like the combination magnifying lens and circular fluorescent light; it provides some additional safety. The bottom line: if you don't know... then, don't.

An easily remedied aural irritant is scratchy controls: most frequently the input selector, volume and tone controls.  Flushing with TV tuner solvent or similar products works well (turn the power off). Be sure to use these chemicals sparingly and in a well-ventilated area. Do not allow them to contact control labels, dial faces (painted side) or hot dial/pilot lights.

Before you switch the input always reduce the volume to prevent the transient "thump" that is associated with switching inputs at high volume.

When you set the level controls (any one or several in-line) avoid setting any control to its maximum output. This is likely to introduce excessive noise. The reasons are technical and I will not pursue the explanation. Try to avoid using that last little bit at the top of the control's excursion. Of course, you can set the control(s) lower if the sound level permits it.

Alan discussed in detail (Part 1, May 2005) the correct procedure to capture the output signal from the record if your amplifier has a phono input. Most hi-fidelity amplifiers (I use the term to describe preamplifier-amplifier combinations, integrated amplifiers and receivers) of the "LP-era" included at least one phono input: some high-end gear offered two or three. Unlike the Seabreeze-genre changers that used a high output (but low fidelity) ceramic cartridge true hi-fidelity turntables used either a moving magnet or a moving coil cartridge that produced, at best, several millivolts. Additional amplification was required to raise the signal level to that of the other inputs (tuner, tape, etc); this was already inside the preamplifier; you merely had to plug the phono connectors into the appropriate input connectors. Let's avoid further technical discussion.

More modern equipment may lack a phono input. Most certainly, none of your computer's sound card inputs are capable of adequately amplifying such low level signals. If that is the case, then you require a little black box called a phono preamplifier. This performs two functions: a. it boosts the signal strength to a level that is adequate for "Auxiliary" or "Line Input" connections on your soundcard, and b. it adjusts the frequency response of the signal to restore proper tonal balance. When the music was originally recorded the low frequencies were attenuated (to prevent them occupying too much physical space on the record) and the high frequencies were boosted (to prevent their disproportionate loss).

There is a documented method - a mathematical algorithm - to achieve a correct outcome; it is not performed according to a recording engineer's whim. The hero in this case is the RIAA: yes, the same one that brought court cases and fines to music "file sharing" (Napster, Gnutella, Limewire). I shall spare you a more detailed explanation and the mathematics (see The Making of an LP, Ultra High Fidelity (UHF) Magazine, Number 73, September 2005 or http://www.delback.co.uk/lp-cdr.htm). You can safely ignore the technicalities but you must have the hardware.

The hardware can take various forms. You can purchase a currently manufactured turntable with an embedded phono preamplifier.  Stanton (a "fine, old name" in the industry) is one company; try Googling "stanton turntable" for vendors. Another supplier is Radio Shack (now The Source). I believe that Dual (Author’s aside: Dual offers a currently manufactured turntable that includes 78 rpm), Sony and others offer currently manufactured, reasonably priced equipment although some may not have an integrated preamplifier. A cartridge/stylus combination may be included or might be an additional purchase. You will likely have to visit a hi-fidelity dealer; this is unlikely merchandise in a big box store. You can purchase, but certainly do not require, the very expensive turntables and arms that are offered for the ultra buyer (advertisements and prices are in the UHF magazine). Believe me, you will not appreciate the front-end fidelity when it is mixed down to an MP3.

If you already have a turntable and require only the preamplifier then there are many sources. Radio Shack/The Source has one for about $50 (Canadian). It is compact and uses a nine volt battery as a power source. While battery power has its faults, it does eliminate the possibility of 60 Hz hum from the power supply. Most hi-fi retail stores will offer other makes and models: some have very impressive specifications and prices (http://stereophile.com/phonopreamps/621/). Keen solder enthusiasts can build one from scratch: Google "phono preamp construction." I use both the Radio Shack device and my LP-era preamplifier.

Finally, you could resurrect one of the many discarded pieces of hi-fi gear. The sources are numerous: e-Bay, second-hand stores (for example, The Salvation Army and pawn shops) and (my personal favorite) garage sales. Be prepared to spend a bit of time testing your find. Most of the "gear" can be located on the Internet; there, you will find at least a basic appraisal of its capabilities. While high (hiss) and low (rumble) filters are nice to have you can probably do a better job with their more sophisticated software cousins. A separate preamplifier - while probably harder to find - provides the needed output signal; the ability to connect/drive speakers is not essential. A few integrated amplifiers (preamplifier and power amplifier on the same chassis) and receivers (former plus an integrated FM or AM/FM tuner) had backplane connectors to access the preamplifier output. These connectors are useful for including an analog graphic equalizer/ spectrum analyzer (nice, but not essential) and a test instrument feed point - more later. Failing this, Alan's methods in the May newsletter are most adequate.

Aside: 60 Hz hum from the household power may prove stubborn to eliminate. While there are filters in many software applications it is always easier to avoid it. Here are a few suggestions.

•	Make certain that you connect the ground wire - if supplied - from the turntable/tonearm assembly to an electrical ground.  The best solution would be to attach the wire to the ground on your preamplifier/amplifier; failing that, then use the small screw on a wall receptacle cover plate. If you still notice hum, try rotating the turntable's power plug 180 degrees in the wall socket. Caution: I do not recommend grounding the turntable or other hi-fi components to the case of your computer. While it may work, it could also cause some "weird, expensive repair stuff." Let's leave it there; I'll spare you the engineer's (who I am not) white paper.
•	Install a powerstrip/power conditioner combination that can remove noise from power lines.
•	Use a single wall socket to power all the equipment (again, I will avoid the technical why of this suggestion) - another vote for the powerstrip. 
•	Avoid using circuits with transient loads (especially motors and fluorescent lights).
•	Clean all the connectors in the circuit. Do not forget the tiny pins on the cartridge (be gentle) and the connectors from the tonearm shell to the tonearm wires. Voltages are very low and any electrical resistance from surface oxidation lowers the voltages further; additional noise may be introduced and the signal to noise ratio will deteriorate. The RCA connectors do oxidize; even if they are connecting system components. Assure a good electrical connection by twisting these connectors as they are being seated. A material called DeoxIT was advocated to remove surface oxidation. I have not purchased any in at least a decade (a little goes a very long way); I don't know if it is still available. It was offered for a while with a companion product (that I have not personally seen, let alone used) called - I think - PreservIT that would prolong the beneficial effect.
•	Make certain that the connectors are fully seated in their respective jack. Partial seating is a certain source of noise.

Finally, you hook everything together with cables. Most of these are the ubiquitous cables with RCA jacks. As noted, these are prone to surface corrosion although the trend towards gold plating may eliminate this problem. If you lack the gold plated version then make sure you polish the jacks - both male and female - frequently (see also DeoxIT/PreservIT above).  Lightly crimp the shell of the male jack to provide a snug fit. While these cables can be interconnected, the longer the cable the more the signal loss; this applies particularly to the higher frequencies. I try to keep the cable length to three feet or less. I prefer to move the front-end (turntable and preamp) as physically close to the computer as possible. In my own experience, the signal cables on the turntable were soldered to the cartridge leads. I imagine that the manufacturers were trying to tell us something about lead lengths. The fewer the interconnections, then, the better.

Record playback might seem simple; drop the record on the turntable platter, apply the stylus and out comes the sound. You  must also, for a variety of technical reasons (See The Making of an LP, Ultra High Fidelity (UHF) Magazine, Number 73,  September 2005), mount the cartridge correctly - both horizontally and vertically. Mounting the cartridge in the shell will assure (with rare exceptions) that the vertical reference is correct. Horizontally, the stylus should rest tangential to the groove. This is facilitated, in part, by the dogleg in the tonearm. For the ultra-purist, there were a few "straight-arms": the arm (minus the dogleg) was located at the side of the record (three o'clock) and projected directly laterally - that is, tangentially - to play the LP. Far more familiar is the one o'clock location for the dogleg tonearm.

Owners of some Dual turntables might recall that they received a plastic jig to facilitate aligning the stylus within the detachable cartridge shell. Neither the jig nor assembly instructions, for that matter, accompany a second hand turntable. If a jig is not part of the accessory pack then you will require a protractor to set the stylus. Visit either http://www.enjoythemusic.com/protractor.pdf or http://www.tanker.se/lidstrom/eng/ to obtain the pattern and print it. Make sure that your version has not ballooned or shrunk in the copying process (reproduce it at exactly 100 per cent). Laminating the final product in plastic film will extend its service-life. Also, the hole for the spindle must be a snug fit.

The headshell (cartridge is attached to it) of most tonearms can be removed. Many are lost and the inevitable result, born of desperation, pairs the tonearm with an orphan head. I personally would not mix a brand A tonearm with a brand B headshell. A lot of variables interact to confer tangentially to the stylus. I have seen both long and short headshells; whatever standard, if indeed one exists, must be nebulous. Personally, I leave these orphans for the next buyer. Make certain that the locking mechanism to bind the headshell to the tonearm is working.

Examine the tonearm for kinks, dents and twists. If a cartridge/stylus is present then lower the stylus onto a mirror placed on the platter. Any deviation from vertical will be immediately apparent. Are the bearings (both vertical and horizontal) free? Check that the weight mechanism (to set the stylus pressure) actually works; sometimes, the internal mechanism is faulty and the adjustment range is severely curtailed. Will the arm swing to the centre of the turntable platter without resistance? I hesitate to recommend any do-it-yourself lubrication. In my experience, resistance or binding is mechanical in origin; oil or grease will not correct it. In any event, if you do not disassemble the components to flush out the old lubricant first then I feel it is merely wasted time. If you do, then you may be faced with the daunting prospect of re-assembling a lot of small parts: likely without any recalibration instructions. That small hurdle aside, what is the correct lubricant? If you are determined then I suggest white (lithium) grease is probably acceptable for the platter bearing. Be stingy with the grease; you do not want it dripping onto everything. Linkages for the arm retraction mechanism, if present, could also be lubricated very sparingly with either this agent or teflon-in-a-solvent. The solvent in the latter evaporates and just the microscopic particles of teflon remain. Do not, however, spray it onto the area; instead, apply a small amount with a sewing needle or toothpick. This dry lubricant would minimize dirt pickup and retention. I would recommend that you shy away from lubricating the tonearm bearings. Many are permanently sealed. Most lubricants will attract dust and grit into the bearings; this is guaranteed to shorten their longevity. I have not tried teflon here; you are free to experiment.

If there is an anti-skating mechanism is it working? Some of these use a "fishing weight on a line" for lack of a better description. Although they work some were a bit of a nuisance to set up. Hit-and-miss, because you have no instructions, is not the method of choice. If your tonearm lacks this feature, do not despair: the difference is supposed to be very subtle; I doubt that MP3 listeners will detect recordings made without it.

While many excellent cartridges existed "back then" most are no longer manufactured. The cartridge body may still be good but the cantilever portion (the "arm" that has the diamond tip on one end and the other end disappears into the cartridge body) has collapsed. If severe enough, the cartridge body immediately behind the diamond stylus tip will drag, perhaps only intermittently, against the record surface. This is guaranteed to diminish the "hi" in the "fi". The solution is a new stylus but at what price? Many are unavailable or in short supply and high-priced. If you can find one within your budget, by all means use your existing cartridge. I recommend replacing the stylus (if available) or installing another cartridge; this way you know its history and can avoid the severe record wear that a worn stylus will cause. There are reasonably priced cartridges available locally. A high-end cartridge is unnecessary; extravagant fidelity won't be evident using most sound cards.

Personally, I change at least the stylus as it is next to impossible to determine its true history. At garage sales I am always told that the turntable was, "hardly used at all"; in the majority of my second-hand purchase experiences if that were true then they were, if not well-used, then well-abused. Ignore the jewelers' credo that "diamonds are forever" since I can assure you that a stylus diamond is not.

Set the stylus pressure within the manufacturer's recommended range; I initially try about 20 - 25% beneath the recommended maximum setting and use a test record (see below) to evaluate the results. Since the stylus' velocity is changing continually, due to the decreasing radius that it is tracking, test the playing fidelity at a given stylus pressure at the periphery of the record, somewhere in the middle and close to the inner edge. The test instruments that I will discuss later offer another way to evaluate the quality of the sound. Personally, I assume that the setting mechanism of the turntable's tonearm is accurate unless something is obviously not right. Do not exceed the manufacturer's maximum pressure since this may overload the ability of the stylus' cantilever to resist. Acoustic Research - AR - of turntable and speaker fame used to market an excellent, accurate but inexpensive stylus pressure gauge that functioned like a miniature chemical balance. I have seen nothing in this regard in the market to date but an accurate, inexpensive gauge would be welcome.

The old stunt of adding a penny, dime or whatever to the headshell (centered over the stylus) to force it through a scratch or other defect may achieve that result but the stylus/cantilever mechanism will pay dearly. Granted, the scratched record is of little worth but do not damage the front end for one record.

In the heyday of the LP, Shure Corporation marketed a series of cartridges called the V15 with a few Mark variants (II and IV spring to mind; the V - or at least replacement styli – may still be available). To demonstrate their potential, they produced at least one test record called the Shure Trackability Test Record: An Audio Obstacle Course (TTR 101). It could be used to determine optimum stylus pressure based upon the recording velocity of the test music. If the stylus hesitated (and this was readily heard) then the stylus pressure would need to be increased. I located a spare at a garage sale; keep your eyes open. Certainly, other effective test records exist; do try to have at least one for reference.

Old turntables usually came with a tonearm although this is not a truism. High-end turntables (the Swiss Thorens, for example) could have been sold without an arm. Obtaining a third-party tonearm was  easy "back then" but would require, I believe, considerably more effort today (for a reasonably priced, "LP-era" model and  not a current manufacture, price is no object, one). If you go this route, make certain that the tonearm/turntable combination is properly mated. Don't buy two separate pieces and try to mate them without the (very scarce) instructions and mounting template. You will never succeed.

Another choice was a changer or a single play. Some single play units had automatic shut-off: nice, but not essential. For your digitizing sessions, the multi-play capability of a changer is moot. Changers are inherently more complex; the choice is yours.

Whatever you buy, make certain that it has a functional cue control. This lowers/raises the tonearm gently and precisely. Without one, your recordings will, in short order, exhibit clicks, pops and scratches where none existed and the life of the stylus will suffer.

Suitable turntables may have either a belt drive or direct drive. My allegiance is: whatever works. The former has a flat belt (oversized elastic band) to transfer the motor's rotation to the platter; the latter uses an electronically controlled motor. Availability aside, each one has its virtues and vices. Belt-driven claim better rumble isolation; their downside is the increasing scarcity of replacement belts (just anything will not work). A belt treatment is available to maintain plasticity and remove oxidation. I have not tried this product. It is available by mail; see the centre (advertising) insert in any issue of Ultra High Fidelity Magazine. The other option - direct drive -may exhibit speed fluctuations that cannot be controlled by the available fine-tuning mechanism. Make certain that a direct drive unit will maintain the set speed for the complete side of a disc. Some lack a fine-tuning adjustment preferring instead the inherent stability of a quartz-lock or phase-locked-loop electronic circuit. Again, I recommend results as the criterion; don't buy on the basis of gizmos. A built-in strobe to check/adjust speed is a nice touch; I use it to verify speed consistency and not absolute accuracy. Believe me, my ears can't detect a slightly too fast or too slow (although I suspect that musicians can) playback - providing it is consistent and does not vary. You can play with the speed - without altering pitch - in many software sound editors. For example, have a look at Audacity, a freeware sound editor (http://audacity.sourceforge.net/). Adding this capability with a strobe disc and a neon/fluorescent light (as simple and cheap as a live ac circuit tester light) is an easy matter (Google "turntable strobe disc"). Any detectable flaws are expensive to repair; just pass it up and get another turntable.

Cleanliness is... dust plays its own tune; you will not enjoy the sound; it becomes ground-in to the vinyl surface of the record and reduces its fidelity and longevity; you will spend precious time with your editing software to remove it. What do you do? Remove it before you play the record. Any number of devices have come (and mostly) gone. Some memorable but effective ones included: The Dust Bug - another "tonearm" with a fine bristle brush and plush roller; Parostatik Disc Preener - a plush, moistened roller; disk washers or shampooers (models available today but expensive); and disk vacuums (not the little mini, battery-powered gizmos). The Ultra High Fidelity store offers an ionizing gun that drains dust-attracting static charges and the Goldring Super eXstatic brush. The LP Is Back offers a couple of do-it-yourself construction projects: an LP washer and a vacuum.

Make it a habit of cleaning the stylus before setting it onto another record. The proper method is not a casual flip of the finger. Who knows the shock to the stylus, cantilever arm and cartridge internals (a small flick of a finger could far exceed the designed excursions of the cartridge's internals)? A small, fine camel-hair brush is ideal (absorbent cotton swabs will leave strands behind). A puff of canned gas (but not your breath) is an alternate although I have not experimented. Again, in the heyday of the LP, a wide selection was offered; today, they are memories. Some recommend the use of a stylus lubricant; I have mixed thoughts about adding a lubricant (sticky or oily immediately comes to mind although this need not be the case). I have not tried any of these products and have no personal opinion: for or against. I don't believe that they can mask pops, scratches or surface defects although they might just help the stylus sneak through instead of skipping. If you pursue this, please let me know the results: I'm curious.

I have found that many second hand turntables lack the original plastic (plexiglass) cover. It always seems to be the first casualty. I usually pass on one that doesn't have it; too much dust and grime has had a chance to invade.

Finally, for those who tire of it, here is the ultimate: a laser turntable. Read the groove with a laser (actually, several) in a manner reminiscent of a Cd-rom or Dvd and never worry about wearing out the groove. Oh yes, have a very large cheque ready.

When you actually copy the record selections to your hard drive be certain to record the lead-in and lead-out (silent - more or less - grooves at the beginning and end respectively) as well as the few seconds of silence between selections. Having this information is essential if your software uses a noise reduction filter that senses the "noise floor."

Audio Cassette Tapes
While vinyl is probably getting the most revival attention; the audio cassette was an alternate input source. Despite their small size (1/8 inch wide tape to hold 4 tracks (bi-directional stereo) the fidelity was quite good.  Like the turntable, some manufacturers achieved spectacular results (for example, Nakamichi, http://www.sonicsense.com/nakfaq42.html). The usual second-hand stores seem to have plenty of pre-recorded material. Some is 'grey market' - if you don't own an original.

Of course, expect the hardware to have problems. The tape head is the most likely achilles' heel; long use begs advanced wear and there is no cheap or magic cure. Next would be various drive motor problems; often, the high-speed shuttle functions are defective. Never purchase without testing the play, fast forward and fast rewind functions. A listening test is also a pre-purchase must: best to use your own tape. Most had a headphone jack (the big, 1/4 inch variety and not the miniature version prevalent on today's equipment) making a good set of headphones useful. Excessive hiss is a bad omen and likely irreparable (at least cheaply).

The cassette tapes themselves used several oxide formulations. I would personally ignore the original tan-colored tape oxide (maybe labeled IEC Type 1) unless it holds must-have material. This early formulation demanded a lot; hiss was a feature - particularly during low-volume passages - and removing it adequately will detract from the upper frequencies. A low-noise variation (also labeled IEC Type 1) used a darker colored oxide with a slightly better signal-to-noise ratio specification.

Higher recording quality could be obtained by using better tapes - these tapes and Dolby noise reduction (see below) likely  gave cassette technology a legitimate seat at the hi-fi table - although they required special settings for higher tape bias (I will spare you the technical details. Suffice to say that these tapes should be avoided if your cassette deck lacks front panel settings for "chromium dioxide (CrO2)", or "IEC Type 2" and "metal" or "IEC Type 4"). Before you ask, I don't know what happened to Type 3. Improper bias will produce poor fidelity; worse, the tape head(s) will suffer rapid wear from these more abrasive materials. Today, only Type 1 and Type 2 (CrO2) are available at retail. For the higher-end tapes various manufacturers incorporated mechanical improvements to the tape transport mechanism inside the cassette.

The cassettes could hold varying amounts of material; the most common were 60 minutes (two times 30 minutes per side) and 90 minutes (two times 45 minutes per side). As Cd-Roms moved to the fore, several manufacturers tried to re-vitalize the cassette by introducing a "digital-ready" version with 100-110 minutes capacity. This strategy used a thinner base (the tape base material itself was plastic) since the physical dimensions of the cassette itself could not be altered to increase capacity. I avoid these; the thinner tape base was not envisaged by most of the hardware manufacturers and the tapes will unexpectedly jam (fishing enthusiasts will remember, I'm sure, the rats' nest that resulted from using a bait-casting reel with an uneducated thumb).

[One important aside: if you intend to playback tapes in your car cassette system avoid the digital tapes completely and use the metal tapes only if your system specifications comply.]

Higher quality decks offered solenoid-operated (versus mechanical) tape transport controls. Later, computer logic was added to minimize tape snarls and localized stretching - certainly a desirable feature.

More recent decks offer LED recording level controls; while nice-to-have (more accurate, instantaneous, recording levels are displayed) remember that the deck is likely going to be used only in playback mode. Most of these recording level indicators display levels during playback but, practically, no adjustments are possible. One exception: if you notice that the record level indicators move into the red zone for extended periods then you will certainly experience the harshness from clipping distortion. Digital circuitry, particularly the rather basic sound card inputs, is ill-equipped to handle this gracefully.

Dolby Labs was pivotal - along with the advanced tape formulations already mentioned - in introducing a noise reduction technology that catapulted the cassette onto the hi-fi stage. While I am studiously avoiding the technical details, Dolby eliminated the high frequency hiss that plagued the music as a result of the combination of slow tape speed, narrow tracks and the limitations of the recording media. Dolby produced several variations; for consumer cassette decks only Type B and Type C were incorporated. The Type C had somewhat better specifications but was not widely used. Your deck should have, as a minimum, Type B since most commercially recorded cassettes employed it. If you play a Dolby-encoded cassette without the noise reduction activated, the sound will be muddy and will lack high frequencies. This would be impossible to negate fully in an audio editor.

A hint to prolong the lifespan of your cassettes: before returning the cassette to storage be certain to run the cassette through the machine (one direction only) at the play setting. Tapes that have been subjected to fast forward and/or fast rewind episodes place excess tension on the media resulting in localized tape stretching.

A short digression for reel-to-reel tapes: while capable of stunning sound (wider tape allowing wider tracks, higher tape speed and sophisticated electronics) without Dolby - although it was offered on a few models - these are relative rarities today in the used market. Media seems very hard to find. Unfortunately, I suspect that whatever media remains available is past its prime: for example, too tightly wound on the reel, oxide flaked off or transferred to an adjacent base layer. Reel-to-reel tape restoration is "not me"; 'nuff said.

Software I don't intend to start a 'which one is better' rant about software but here are a couple of alternatives to the package that Alan suggested.

Exact Audio Copy (EAC) (http://www.exactaudiocopy.de/) remains my favorite price-is-not-a-factor 'ripper' since it is freeware (well, technically to register it will cost you a postcard, a stamp and a few kind words). With proper tweaking it will repeatedly attempt to derive a perfect copy: scratches beware. Googling "exact audio copy settings" will return plenty of resources; here's one to get you started: http://club.cdfreaks.com/showthread.php?t=101833.

Audacity (http://audacity.sourceforge.net/) is an open source (free) audio editor and recorder.
Despite its humble price it boasts features that place it on a par with many expensive commercial applications. A selection of plug-ins (filters) are available (another download at the website) and Audacity is compatible with many commercial plug-ins (not included). Extensive help files and tutorials are available online.

Virtual Test Instruments 
Want to test/fix your audio equipment? While knowledge is an essential ingredient, the more expensive component is the test equipment. While professional equipment would be great, the cost and storage space are both limiting factors. A standalone, modest capability digital voltmeter (DVM), however, is a worthwhile purchase. There are numerous models from Radio Shack/The Source and even stores like Canadian Tire or Home Depot.

Monitoring Times (Volume 24, Number 10, October 2005, pages 72-73), a monthly magazine dedicated to shortwave and ham radio provided the incentive for this information; however, some of the websites in that article are no longer viable.

Using some very clever software you can have virtual test instruments (for audio frequencies) that rival their dedicated counterparts. If you have a computer with a soundcard then you are in business. Hardware needs are quite modest: A Pentium (I) 233 MHz with a (same-era) soundcard is adequate; the original author was using windows 98 SE. You are on your own for other, especially earlier, operating systems. While multi-GHz machines won't magically enhance the capabilities a better soundcard will offer distinct improvement in waveform discrimination.

Since the test instrument "internals" are provided by your soundcard there are some important limitations:

1.	The quality/accuracy of the instrument readouts are related directly to the quality of the soundcard;
2.	Since sound is the operative word, do not expect to troubleshoot beyond audio frequencies;
3.	EXTREME CAUTION - make certain that all signals applied are within an acceptable voltage/current range for your soundcard (Read your owner's manual);
4.	The article did not discuss the suitability of using on-motherboard (built-in) sound circuitry (You are on your own.);
5.	If you send signals generated by these test instruments through your hi-fidelity and/or computer sound system make certain  that the volume is kept very low - just enough to hear it (Sine wave test tones can "stuff" a lot of power into the envelope and speakers can blow in an  instant. Be advised!); and,
6.	Some test probes may be needed (Most of these are lengths of wire with suitable connectors/probes on the ends. There are construction projects for these: visit http://www.virtins.com and scroll down).

Most of this equipment will assume that you know how to use it. As freeware, there is not a lot of help provided but some sites have some text files. There is one site (Elektroda, full address below) with user forums that might answer posted questions although I am not personally guaranteeing anything on their behalf. You can also look around the "Elektroda" forums for additional virtual test instruments. The remainder of this article is not a tutorial although there will be an odd hint or tip. Books outlining test instrument techniques may be found in the library; check their Tab books. The Internet (for example, http://www.doctronics.co.uk/scope.htm) will keep you pleasantly occupied. Radio Shack had a series of booklets for their own brand of test equipment (Micronta) but I assume that they are out of print: try second-hand book stores.

The DVM mentioned earlier is great to determine if voltage is present, its amplitude (number of volts) and its polarity. Most have a resistance function to test suspected resistors; a few models include an array of, in my opinion, functions of "iffy" usefulness: for example, transistor and diode checkers. Going to the next level, you can see the voltage on your computer monitor using a technician's version of a television: an oscilloscope. Aside from visualizing the waveform, you can view a test signal (from another instrument in our "pack") as it is produced and compare that with the signal that has passed through your equipment. This requires a dual-trace oscilloscope and the models below will perform this duty - even on modest computer hardware.

Another instrument - we need to generate the test signal above - is a sweep generator that can produce a test signal at a fixed frequency (often 1000 Hz), sweep across a user-defined range of frequencies using different rates of frequency change, and be able to generate white and pink noise spectra.

Another instrument will "count" the audio cycles (that is, display the frequency) and also act as an AC voltmeter with millivolt discrimination.

One dual-trace oscilloscope will even function on an Intel 80486 machine running Windows 95 but a stereo sound card is essential (for displaying dual traces). Go to http://polly.phys.msu.su/~zeld/ (msu is Moscow State University) and download Oscilloscope Version 2.51.

For an audio sweep generator have a look at SweepGen, Version 3.1.0 from http://www.david-taylor.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/software/audio.html#SweepGen

Also on this same site is a tone burst generator, ToneBurst, Version 1.4.0 and a Vectorscope, Version 0.1.2. This latter instrument can produce the scrambled egg waveforms (technically Lissajous figures) for stereo that indicate signal phasing, location and separation. Be certain to check (and download if required) the associated runtime libraries.

A frequency/time/interval counter is available from www.electronics-lab.com/downloads/pc/008/.

The download pages at Elektroda also offer spectrum analyzers (a dancing bar or waterfall display) that can prove useful with some experience.

Arguably, the most feature-laden instrument suite could be obtained from Dazy Web Labs.
Unfortunately, their homepage and all the instruments disappeared about mid-September. In the Monitoring Times article this software tested flawlessly on a Pentium II 400 MHz and Windows 98 SE. The quality of the soundcard is important although even a basic one can produce quite acceptable results.

Dazy Web Labs offered a dual-trace oscilloscope, Model DS-2002, that is more user-friendly and has more features than the earlier listing. It offers auto-scaling (input signal level automatically scales the display screen to present the waveform at a suitable size) and numerous data storage and recall capabilities. The original website (see Monitoring Times reference below) has disappeared but the files are mirrored at http://tinyurl.com/aktx6 (full URL at bottom of article). Alternately, you could try one of the "7 Scopes" from http://www.elektroda.net/download/file1166.html.

Next is the Dazy Labs audio oscillator, Model SG 1. It offers dual channel audio signal generation, multiple waveforms (sine, square, triangle, sawtooth and more), accurate to within 0.1 Hz up to almost 100 KHz, and data storage and recall. You even get a Help file. Visit http://www.elektroda.net/download/file1134.html

Last, but not least, the Dazy Labs combination audio frequency counter and AC voltmeter, Model CT-4004 is available from http://www.elektroda.net/download/file1135.html

A similar shareware offering is AudioTester (http://www.sumuller.de/audiotester/) that includes a spectrum analyzer, tone generator and an oscilloscope. Virtins also offers similar but commercial test instruments.

Conclusion I'm all talked out. Yes, you can get quite acceptable sound without knowing all the details. For those who wish to explore or extend their horizons, have fun.

Some Resources

Setup, Alignment of Turntables/Tonearms and Cartridges http://www.audiophilia.com/features/cartridge_setup.htm  
http://www.turntablebasics.com/align.html  
http://smartdev.com/LT/Align.htm  http://www.fortunecity.com/rivendell/xentar/1179/theory/cartridgesetup/TurntableSetup.html
http://www.fortunecity.com/rivendell/xentar/1179/theory/cartridgesetup/CartridgeSetup.html 

Cartridge Alignment Protractors http://www.enjoythemusic.com/protractor.pdf http://www.tanker.se/lidstrom/eng/ 

Review of laser turntable http://smartdev.com/LT/AnalogCorner.pdf 

Conversion of LP to CD http://www.convertvinyl.com,  http://audio-restoration.com/menu.php  ! 
http://www.delback.co.uk/lp-cdr.htm 

Convert 78 rpm and earlier www.tinfoil.com www.cdf.lbl.gov/~av/  http://mixonline.com/ar/audio_restoration/ 

Books Burning Down the House, Eliot Van Buskirk, McGraw-Hill,Osborne, 2003, ISBN 
0-07-222879-2 (Great how to for Exact Audio Copy, a CD ripper and more)

Burn Baby, Burn, Josh McDaniel and Bob Starrett, Peachpit Press, 2004, ISBN 
0-321-24131-2

The LP Is Back, http://www.audioxpress.com/bksprods/books/bkaa49.htm  contact Kelly Bennett (kelly@audioXpress.com) for ordering information.

Magazine Articles "Free PC Electronic Test Instruments", John Catalano in Monitoring Times Magazine, October
2005, pages 72-73

"Rolling Your Own CDs", Ultra High Fidelity Magazine, Number 72, August 
2005, pages 42-45

"The Making of an LP", Paul Bergman in Ultra High Fidelity Magazine, Number 
73, September
2005, pages 18-21

AudioXpress Magazine, various issues: deals, in part, with restoring old hi-fidelity equipment

Full URL for the Dazy Labs downloads (in case the "tinyurl" expires)

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8&lo=http%3A//www.plcdrives.com/post-258234.html#exit